Managing Mango Anthracnose: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions

Mango anthracnose is a destructive fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, significantly impacting mango production globally. This disease is particularly prevalent in warm, humid regions with frequent rainfall during the flowering and fruiting periods of mango trees, such as Southeast Asia, parts of Africa, and Central and South America. Its devastating effects on yield and fruit quality make it a major concern for farmers and agricultural researchers alike.

The symptoms of mango anthracnose are highly distinctive, affecting leaves, flowers, and fruits. On leaves, the disease manifests as dark, sunken lesions, often located near the edges. These lesions can expand and coalesce, leading to severe defoliation. Flowers infected by the fungus may turn brown, wither, and fall prematurely, drastically reducing the fruit set and potential harvest. The most striking symptoms are observed on mango fruits. Infected fruits develop large, black, sunken lesions that may crack and ooze, rendering the fruit unmarketable. In advanced stages, the infection causes fruit rot and premature fruit drop, further compounding yield losses. These symptoms can also continue to progress post-harvest, severely affecting storage and marketability.

The disease cycle of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is facilitated by its ability to survive on plant debris and infected tissues. Rain splashes and wind play a crucial role in disseminating fungal spores to healthy tissues, particularly during periods of high humidity and temperature. This adaptability allows the fungus to persist and re-infect mango orchards year after year, making management a challenging task.

Effective management of mango anthracnose requires an integrated approach. Chemical control remains one of the most commonly used strategies. Copper-based fungicides, such as copper oxychloride or copper hydroxide, are widely recommended and should be applied at key stages—particularly during flowering and early fruit development. Systemic fungicides, including azoxystrobin or tebuconazole, have also shown efficacy in managing the disease. However, reliance solely on chemical treatments can lead to fungicide resistance.

Cultural practices play a vital complementary role in disease management. Regular pruning to improve air circulation and reduce canopy humidity is essential. Removing and destroying infected plant debris can limit the fungal inoculum. Additionally, the use of resistant mango varieties, where available, offers a sustainable long-term solution. Post-harvest treatments, such as hot water treatment and biofungicides, have also gained traction in reducing losses during storage and transportation.

In conclusion, mango anthracnose poses a significant threat to mango production worldwide, but an integrated management strategy combining chemical, cultural, and biological methods can effectively minimize its impact. Ongoing research into resistant varieties and eco-friendly control measures holds promise for sustainable mango farming.
Managing Mango Anthracnose: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions

Physical properties of mango fruit

Mango trees, renowned for their towering stature, can achieve impressive heights ranging from 35 to 40 meters, with a sprawling crown radius of approximately 10 meters. The leaves of these majestic trees maintain their vibrant green color year-round, maturing into a rich, dark green, forming a lush canopy that provides shade and refuge.

Mangoes are highly esteemed across many nations for their alluring flavor profile, marked by succulence and exotic taste, captivating taste buds with their delightful flavor. Beyond their culinary appeal, mangoes are also prized for their wealth of essential nutrients, boasting high levels of vitamins A, B, and C, along with various vital minerals, contributing significantly to overall health.

Despite being seasonal, a significant portion of mangoes, approximately 20 percent, undergo processing to produce a variety of delicious products. From creamy purees to refreshing nectars, chewy leathers to convenient canned slices, tangy chutneys to refreshing juices, luxurious ice creams to nutritious fruit bars, and comforting pies, mangoes inspire a multitude of culinary creations, enriching gastronomic experiences globally.

As mangoes ripen, they undergo a notable transformation, accumulating abundant carotenoids, renowned for their antioxidant properties. Carotenoid levels increase as mangoes approach maturity, leading to variations in size, shape, color, sweetness, and overall quality. The fruit's skin reflects this diversity, ranging from green to vibrant shades of yellow, orange, red, or even exhibiting additional hues when fully ripe.

At the center of the mango lies its seed, a flat oblong structure that may have fibrous or hairy characteristics, depending on the variety. Encased within a protective seed coat, measuring 1-2 mm thick, is a delicate membrane surrounding a single embryo, typically 4 to 7 centimeters long and 3 to 4 centimeters wide.

Despite their allure, mangoes face challenges due to their perishable nature. Each year, significant quantities of mangoes spoil during various stages of handling, from processing and packaging to storage and transportation. To minimize losses and maximize utility, innovative techniques are employed to create value-added products, including pulping for nectar and juice concentrates, as well as drying or dehydrating processes, which extend shelf life while retaining the essence of the fruit.
Physical properties of mango fruit

Mango cardiotonic activities

Studies indicate mango possesses antidiabetic, anti-oxidant, anti-viral, cardiotonic, hypotensive, anti-inflammatory properties.

Cardiotonic is a substance used to increase the efficiency and improve the contraction of the heart muscle, which leads to improved blood flow to all tissues of the body.

Mangiferin, being a polyphenolic antioxidant and a glucosyl xanthone, it has strong cardiotonic activities.

Mangiferin was found to ameliorate the effect of isoproterenol-induced pathological changes, reduced the lipid peroxide formation and retained the myocardial marker enzyme activities at near normal level.

Cardiotonic activities of mango

What is mango jelly?

Jams, jellies and marmalades are collective known as preserves and are semisolid gels each made using the same process.

Commercial mango jellies production developed from home prepared preserves and desserts made during fruit season and are still practice in one form or other as cottage industry.

Mango jelly is a clear or translucent fruit spread made from sweetened mango juice and set using naturally occurring pectin.

Jelly can be made from sweet, savory or hot ingredients. It is made by a process similar to that used for making jam, with the additional step of filtering out the fruit pulp after initial heating.

It was prepared with a high concentration of dissolved solids so fermentation can be avoided.

How to prepare mango jelly? Jellies are prepared by boiling mango in water. The extract obtained is strained and measured quantity of sugar is added to it. The mixture is then boiled to a stage at which it will set to a clear gel.
The consistency of jellies depends upon the type of pectin, and lack of knowledge about the requirements necessary for the pectin gel formation frequently contributes to products of undesirable consistency.

A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and should have the original flavor of the fruit.
What is mango jelly?

History of mango in India

Mango cultivation probably originated in India, and it was estimated that mango cultivation to have began at least 4000 years ago.

This fruit is intimately associated with the history of India agriculture and civilization and it enjoys a royal status in the country when compared to the other growing places. Ancient Sanskrit literature described the mango as ‘king of fruits;. Ayurvedic medicine recognizes mangoes as an aphrodisiac and in some ancient n texts it is written that the ripe mango increases sexual energy and stamina.

The first group of people to spill the beans and initiate trade of the fruit were peripatetic Buddhist monks four or five centuries BC. A mango tree is depicted in friezes on the stupa of Bharut, which was constructed around 100 BC.

Available records indicate that the soldiers of Alexandra the Great has come across grove in Indus Valley. 

Traders and monks from India possibly introduced superior elections of mango into South-east Asia: however, vegetative propagation was unknown in India until after the arrival of the Portuguese in Goa in the 15th century.

During Mughal time, Akbar the Great paid the greatest tribute to mango who established an orchard of one lakh mango trees, designated as ‘Lakh-Bagh’ in Darbhanga in erstwhile Bihar State.

The mango tree and fruit are referred in the travelogues of ancient travelers including Huan tsang, Ibn Hankal and Ibn Batuta of which the Chinese traveler Huan-tsang is the first one to bring mango to the notice of the outside world during 632-645 AD.
History of mango in India

Mango with minerals

Mango is full of nutritious quality. A ripe mango has 86 percent of water, 0.3 % mineral salt, calcium 0.01%, phosphorus 0.02%, iron 5 mg per 100 grams

Other mineral in mango is silica, a mineral that gives structural support to human hair, muscles, bones, teeth and skin.

Silica also plays a role in keeping the skin tight and smooth by supporting both bone and collagen formation.

Other key minerals in mangoes including magnesium, sodium, zinc, copper, and manganese.

Iron in mango is needed for the formation of red blood cell.

Calcium and magnesium in mango are good for building strong bones and teeth. Calcium also important for the healthy functioning of the muscles including the heart and nerves.

While for zinc it is needed for the body growth, healing and the metabolism of protein and carbohydrates.
Mango with minerals

Introduction to Mango

The mango is believed to have been discovered as long as five to six thousand years in eastern India, Thailand, Myanmar, the Andaman Islands or Malaysia.

Mango is the national fruit of India, where it is known as the 'King of Fruits'. Not only is it one of the most highly prized fruits of South Asia, it is also intimately connected with folklore and legends across many religions.

Mango trees can grow up to 40 m high and are topped with a rounded canopy of foliage. They may live for more than 100 years.

In plantations they are usually grafted onto the roots of smaller trees so that they can't grow as tall.

There are hundreds of mango cultivars distributed throughout the world, of which Asia and India have over 500 and perhaps even 1000. Leaves - long and leathery.

The mango fruit is a large, fleshy drupe, containing an edible mesocarp of varying thickness.

The mesocarp is resinous and highly variable with respect to shape, size, color, presence of fiber and flavour.

They have fibres which 'crackle' when they are crushed. They contain a chemical called mangiferin, or 'Indian Yellow' which was used as a dye.

Flowers - both male and female and are beautifully fragrant. Mango flowers are borne on terminal pyramidal panicles and are glabrous or pubescent; the inflorescene is rigid and erect, up to 30 cm long and is widely branched, usually tertiary, although the final branch is always cymose.

Fruits - the skin may be green, yellow, or red. The fruits have a small point, known as the beak. It is cultivated for its edible orange-colored flesh. The seed within is large and flattened.

No matter its coloring or variety, a ripe, medium size mango provides carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins A, B1, B6 and C, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, manganese, iron, phosphorus, potassium, pantothenic acid, and niacin.
Introduction to Mango

Mango

Mango
Mango is commonly eaten fresh and depending upon the cultivar may be consumed at an immature (unripe, green peel) stage or when fully ripe.

In addition, the pulp may be cooked, dried, preserved frozen or powdered.

Mango pulp may be incorporated into beverage, desserts, ice cream sorbets, preserves, jellies, fruit salads, chutneys, pickles, canned in syrup, pureed and dried.

Mangos are a rich source of vitamins A and C and have recently been found to be high in anti-cancer antioxidants and phenols.

Historically there have been many reported medicinal uses of the sap (latex), flowers, seeds and leaves for use as astringents, treating diarrhea, hemorrhages, fever hypertension and hemorrhoids.
Mango

World Production and Yield of Mango

World Production and Yield of Mango
There is an estimated 3.7 million ha of mango worldwide. Mango production in 2004 was estimated at 26.6 million ton, ranked seventh in worldwide fruit production behind banana, grape, organs, apple, coconut and plantain.

The top ten mango-producing countries based on area of production include India, China, Thailand, Mexico, Indonesia, the Philippines, Nigeria, Pakistan, Guinea and Brazil.

The top five largest mango-exporting countries are Mexico, India, Brazil, Peru and the Philippines with exports worldwide valued at US$560.4 million.

The top five mango importing countries are the USA, the Netherlands, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Bangladesh with imports valued at US$703.9 million.

Fruit are available year round depending upon production location and cultivar.

Production per ha varies greatly with average yields of 2-6 t/ha being common in some regions and with highest yields reported to be 10-30 t/ha.

Average yields for productive orchards range form 22 to 25 t/ha.
World Production and Yield of Mango

Mango and health benefits

Mango and health benefits
Mango is sweet and sour, with a cooling energy. It is rich in amino acids, beta carotene, niacin, vitamin C and E, flavonoids, calcium, iron, magnesium and potassium. Mango also contains pectin, which is useful in lowering blood cholesterol levels.

The fruit is considered yin tonic, providing moistening fluids for the body and quenching thirst. It has alternative (blood purifying), antiseptic, diuretic, and laxative properties.

Mangoes have been used to treat anemia, bleeding gums, clogged pores, constipation, cough, cysts, fever, hypertension, indigestion, nausea, nephritis (kidney inflammation), respiratory ailments, seasickness and weak digestion.

They calm the emotions, benefit the brain, strengthen the heart and provide energy.

Some mango species do no turn red, yellow or orange, which means that with some varieties you are likely to buy them green and must look for other signs or ripeness. A ripe mango yields to the pressure of a fingertip and has a sweet fragrance.

Putting a mango in a paper bag in a warm place helps the ripening process. Avoid shriveled fruits with large, dark areas in their skin, as these are overripe.
Mango and health benefits